Elements

With each additional electron-proton pair, the shapes of atoms change. A pattern in the changing shapes repeats giving the atoms repeating properties and behaviours, analogous to families. The repetition can be compared to the 8 consecutive notes in music forming octaves. Each member of the same family has the same number of unpaired electrons and displays a similar shape and has similar properties. 

The elements above are arraigned in a table called the periodic table as shown above. The 8 families named I-VIII are headed by H, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and He. The atoms are arraigned in order of size, with the smallest first, with 1 electron, the next bigger atom with 2 electrons, and the subsequent atoms each growing by 1 electron. 

Electrons 

An unpaired electron of an atom is usually bonded to another atom to form a covalent bond. An atom, a molecule or an ion with an unbonded unpaired electron is called a free radical and they are very reactive and typically only occur briefly before they take an electron from another molecule and create another free radical causing a chain of free radical production. 

An electron pair of an atom consists of two electrons that are paired. They can be found in the core levels of atoms, or as valence electrons on the outermost electron shell, forming covalent bonds with other at- oms. If they are valence electrons without bonding to other atoms, they are called a lone pair, or a non-bonding pair. 

Bonds 

Covalent bonds between atoms usually form to pair their unpaired electrons. 

• Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds with other atoms. 
• Nitrogen forms 3 covalent bonds with other atoms. 
• Oxygen forms 2 covalent bonds with other atoms. 
• Chlorine forms 1 covalent bond with one other atom. 

Electrons from one atom can bond with electrons from another atom by pairing to form “covalent bonds”, or by attracting to form “ionic bonds”. 

Covalent bonds

When unpaired electrons of one atom pair with unpaired electrons from other atoms, they form single bonds. Unpaired electrons also form bonds with paired electron of other atoms forming weaker single bonds. When an atom is bonded by 2 single bonds to another atom, the bond is called a double bond. When atoms are bonded by 3 bonds, the bond is called a triple bond. Think of bonds between 2 atoms like two acrobats holding each other using their hands and feet. 

Ionic bonds

When atoms are missing electrons, they become positively charged atoms called positive ions also known as cations. When hydrogen is missing its proton, the atom it was bonded to is left with the charged electron left behind and becomes a negatively charged atom called a negative ion also known as an anion. Like magnets, opposite charged ions attract each other and form bonds called “ionic bonds”. 

Families of atoms 

The family of atoms led by hydrogen have 1 unpaired electron so loosely held that it easily breaks away leaving the atoms as positive ions in a sea of free electrons. This gives these atoms metallic properties of lustre, malleability and thermal and electrical conductivity. 

The family of atoms led by carbon have 2 unpaired electrons, making the atoms ideal for forming bonds with atoms on either side resulting in strings of atoms called polymers seen in plants and plastics. When carbon forms bonds with other carbons, the bonds are strong enough to form stable molecules but weak enough to be easily broken by external forces like temperature. This allows types of molecules to form that are necessary for life. 

The family of atoms led by nitrogen have 3 unpaired electrons allowing them to bond in such a way as to link the polymer carbon strings into 3 dimensional structures like proteins. The 3 bonds of the atoms form bonds so tight that they are explosive when broken. 

The family of atoms led by oxygen have 2 unpaired electrons that cut and tear atoms from their molecules causing burning, fire and rust, or form strong bonds with atoms forming molecules such as water and alcohol. The bonds formed by oxygen are strong enough not to be easily broken by external forces like temperature. 

The family of atoms called Halogens are led by fluorine. They have 1 unpaired electron that is so tightly held that when they pair with other unpaired electrons of other atoms, they tear the atoms apart, stealing their electron. When this happens, these atoms become negative charged ions with electrical properties. Atoms of this family, when ionized, bond easily with positively charged metal ions that have lost their electrons forming salts. 

The family of atoms called Noble gases are led by helium. They do not have any unpaired electrons. Their paired electrons are very tightly held and do not bond with any other atoms. 

All atoms of the same family have the same number of unpaired electrons and have similar shapes and properties. In the figure below, unpaired electrons are shown elongated, and paired electrons are shown spherical. 

Hydrogen (H) 

Hydrogen is the most abundant element forming almost 75% of the universe. Hydrogen is the smallest atom with 1 proton and 1 unpaired electron. In the sun, hydrogen atoms are fused together to fuel the sun so that it could power it to make all of the heavier atoms, like an oven baking breads. Hydrogen forms bonds with its one and only unpaired electron with most other types of atoms to form many types of molecules. Hydrogen is polarized because of its long elongated shape with its protruding positively charged proton sticking out one end and the long elongated negatively charged electron handle on the other end. Because molecules with hydrogen are polarized, they are like magnets and form a very gently bond between them called the hydrogen bond. It is what holds water together in a drop. Because all heavier atoms are made from hydrogen in the sun, and because so many other atoms bond so well with hydrogen, just like it was a baby, it is given a baby’s face. Hydrogen can easily break apart into its component proton and electron when tightly held by other atoms in the molecule and when sufficiently bombarded by other molecules. Hydrogen losing its protruding proton is the cause of acid reactions, like a baby losing his pacifier. 

Metals 

Metals have one or more very loosely held unpaired electrons. They are loosely held by the atom because they are crowded out by the many paired electrons that metal atoms have. When electrons break away, they leave a positive charged metal ion swimming in a negatively charged sea of electrons. Electric current flows when the sea of electrons all move in the same direction like a swarm of bees. Metals at- oms are like bees that too easily lose their stinger. 

Group 1 Alkali Metals 

Atoms with 3, 11, 19, 37, 55, and 87 electrons are in the Group I family called alkali metals. They are Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr. Elements in this family are extremely reactive as they have a loosely held protruding unpaired electron which is very vulnerable to being torn away or squeezed out by the tightly packed paired electrons. When this happens, they form positive charged metal ions. 

Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) are metals and are essential components of the nervous system of animals allowing the EM forces to be used there. This family of atoms make bonds with O which bonds with H to form compounds called bases. OH can break off from these bases tearing out an electron with it and leaving the molecule positively ionized. These metal ions are very reactive with ionized atoms of Group VII who gain electrons and form with them stable salts and water. This is seen when the reactive base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and the reactive acid hydrogen chloride (HCl) form stable table salt sodium chloride (NaCl) and water (H2O). If the members of Group I are likened to men in heat, members of Group VII would be like women in heat. The heavier the atoms are in this group, the more reactive they are. 

Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals 

Atoms with 4, 12, 20, 38, 56 and 88 electrons are in the Group II family called alkaline earth metals. They are Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra. Elements in this family are similar to the alkali metals but less reactive. They have loosely held protruding electrons. These atoms easily loose some of their electrons to form charged ions. 

Magnesium (Mg) found in chlorophyll allows photosynthesis, the storing of energy from photons. Calcium (Ca) is an essential component for building structures, and is found in shells and bones providing stable structure to animals, and in cliffs providing stable structure to land masses. 

Transitional Metals 

Between Group II and III, is a transitional family of elements called transitional metals with more or less the same metallic properties. They have up to 5 unpaired electrons. Some of the important ones are Chromium, Tungsten, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Platinum, Copper, Silver, Gold, Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury. Gold is unaffected by air, water, alkalis and all acids except aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid). 

The similarities of these elements allow them to be mixed and to form stable mixtures called alloys. Alloys allow man to combine and mix different transitional metals and elements in beneficial ways to obtain new materials with new properties. Iron with Carbon forms steel. Steel with Chromium forms stainless steel. Copper with Zinc forms brass. Copper with Tin forms bronze. 

Silver, Copper and Gold are metals which conduct electricity the best. 

Mercury, Cadmium and Zinc are metals with the lowest melting points, while Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point. 

Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel are aligned by a magnetic field due to their shape. Once aligned, the atoms stay aligned and display a magnetic field. Whenever electrons are required to drive a process in a living cell, Iron is used to give one up. Iron in blood cells called haemoglobin is used to pick up, securely carry and deposit oxygen to cells. Iron is the most abundant metal forming 35% of earth, mostly in its liquid core. 

Group 3 Boron Family 

Atoms with 5, 13, 31, 49 and 81 electrons are in the Group III family. They are B, Al, Ga, In, Ti. Elements in this family have a protruding unpaired electron which can either break off to form metal ions or can form bonds with other molecules to make compounds. 

Boron (B) is a metalloid having both metal and non-metal characteristics. Aluminium (Al), the most abundant metal in the earth's crust (7%), bonds with silicon and oxygen to form clays and ceramics. 

Group 4 Carbon Family 

Atoms with 6, 14, 32, 50 and 82 electrons are in the Group IV family. They are C, Si, Ge, Tin (Sn), and Lead (Pb). Elements in this family have a tetrahedral shape with 2 tightly held unpaired electrons which form chains with other molecules to make string like compounds that loop and form sheets and crystals. This is the shape that allows the closest packing of spheres allowing the hardest crystal, the diamond, to form. Its 2 unpaired electrons, like hands, form gentle bonds with most other types of atoms. It forms chains with other carbon atoms that are the backbone of all life. 

Just like the carbon chains of straw added to dried earth bricks make them hard, carbon added to iron makes hard steel, and tin added to copper makes hard bronze. 

Hydrogen is attracted to carbon, like a child is attracted to her mother. Because carbon is like a woman, forming gentle bonds and attracting hydrogen, it has a woman’s face. 

Carbon (C) is the 3rd most available element in the universe and is found in its free form in nature as diamonds, graphite and coal. The shape of the atom is a tetrahedron with 4 corners. There are 2 unpaired electrons to form 2 bonds with other atoms in 2 directions forming chain structures. In addition there are 2 paired electrons that form bonds with other atoms that dress and cover the carbon chains. It is these carbon chains that make up and feed all of life. 

Sheets of carbon atoms form graphite. Like randomly aligned snowflakes, graphite forms a slippery material similar to snow and ice. 

The graphite sheets are indented much like corrugated cardboard and when enough pressure is applied to align them and lock them to each other, 3 dimensional structures as displayed by diamond crystals emerge. 

One carbon atom bonded with 4 carbons at each corner is the basic structure of carbons bonding to other carbons. This tetrahedron shape allows for forming chains that branch and loop. Carbon chains and loops weave themselves into 2 dimensional sheets as in graphite. These sheets can be forced to align so that the cavities or holes are aligned allowing light to be easily transmitted thru it. It is this alignment of the holes that accounts for diamond's hardness and its light transmitting properties. 

Carbon forms compounds with hydrogen called hydrocarbons (petroleum) that fuel our civilization. Methane, also called earth gas, with 1 carbon is a flammable gas. Gasoline with between 4-12 carbons is a very combustible liquid and a fuel for motors. As the carbon chain gets longer, the liquid turns thicker. Kerosene with up to 17 carbons is also known as paraffin and lamp oil. Liquid paraffin called mineral oil is a more viscous and highly refined product which is used as a laxative. Kerosene is widely used to power jet engines and is also used for cooking, lighting and as fuel for small motors. 

C is an essential component for life as it easily combines with itself and with many other elements allowing the formation of rings and long chain molecules required for complex development of life. The figures below show single and double bonds between the carbon atoms. 

As the carbon chain gets longer, the molecules change from gases to liquids and then to solids. Earth gases like methane have chains with up to 5 carbons. Liquid gasoline has up to 8 carbons, fuel oils like kerosene and diesel have up to 17 carbons, lubricating oils and grease have over 20 and solids like paraffin wax have 20-40 carbon atoms in their chain. Rubbers and plastics are polymers made up of an indefinite number of carbons in a chain. 

Silicon 

Just as carbon is required for the development of life, Silicon (Si), its heavier brother, is required for the development of computers. While carbon forms trees, Silicon, its heavier and more sluggish brother forms rocks. Silicon forms 70% of the land mass of the earth in the form of sand and rocks and glass, asbestos, mica, clay, talc, quartz, topaz, garnet, and agate. Silicon in the form of SiO2, the oxide of silicon, forms a crystalline solid called “sand” which when melted aligns its crystals and forms “glass”. 

Boulders a few meters in diameter break up into smaller rock pieces called gravel. Pebbles as small as 5mm in diameter can be cemented together to form large pieces of rock called conglomerates. Sand less than 5mm is cemented to form sandstone by nature and concrete by man. Mud particles as big as 0.05 mm in diameter and even smaller pieces called silt ground by glaciers form mudstones and siltstones. Added Aluminium forms Clay pieces 0.005 mm and smaller which in turn is pressed and turned into claystones by nature and baked into porcelains by man. 

Granite is solidified molten Si crystals that are hardened by the pressures of the earth. They break down into rock. Rock breaks down into sand that is 0.02->2mm in diameter. Limestone is sediment of sand cemented with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from seashells. Marble is limestone with its calcium carbonate minerals recrystallized by the high temperatures and pressures it undergoes when it is buried deep underground under the oceans. 

Silicones are non-toxic inorganic polymer chain of SiOSiOSiO... By adjusting the size of the chain, fluids, resins, and rubbers used in lubricants, water repellents, waxes and polishes and non-static coatings are produced. They are far more resistant to oxidation than organic polymers because the Si-O bond is stronger than the C-C bond. The chain is easily twisted and rotates preventing close contact. This causes a lower freezing point, useful for motor oils. It is used as silly putty, bathtub caulk, and breast implants. 

Silicate fibres, based on chains of silicon, are similar to cellulose and cellophane, based on chains of carbon. 

Nature-made rock fibres like mica (Metals-Si8-O20-(OH)4) and asbestos (Metals-Si8-O22-(OH)2) are based on chains of silicon and have metals such as Ca, Na, Mg, Fe and Al on their chains, making them toxic when inhaled. 

Man-made rock fibres like rock wool made like cotton candy, fibreglass made like cloth and fibre cement made like cardboard do not have metals on their chains. 

Silica Gel is formed when sodium carbonate from sea shells and silicon dioxide from sand melt and the carbons and silicon atoms trade positions to form sodium silicate and carbon dioxide: (Na2CO3 + SiO2→ Na2SiO3 + CO2) While CaCO3 dissolves only slightly in water making what is called hard water, NaSiO3 dissolves readily in water forming a basic solution called water glass. When water glass is heated to 100–105 °C, the water evaporates leaving behind a residue of granular glass called Silica Gel with pores 2.4 nanometers diameter and with a very strong affinity for water molecules. Silica Gel granules are used as a desiccant to keep things dry. 

Tin (Sn) is used in many alloys. With Iron, it is used to make tin cans preventing them from rusting. With Copper it forms bronze and with Lead (Pb) it forms solder. 

Group 5 Nitrogen Family 

Atoms with 7, 15, 33, 51 and 83 electrons are in the Group V family. They are N, P, As, Sb and Bi. Elements in this family have a shape with tightly held unpaired electrons which forms bonds with other molecules. Because of their capability to form strong bonds that can suddenly break, they are like circus acrobats. 

Nitrogen (N) is the 4th most available element in the human body and makes up 80% of air. It is used in amines which form amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, and nucleic acids, the building blocks of DNA. These atoms offer 3 unpaired electrons which bond with other atoms in 3 directions and tie 2-dimensional carbon chains into complex 3-dimensional forms called proteins. 

Nitrogen forms very tight triple bonds that when broken release great amounts of explosive energy as in explosives and bombs. Gunpowder is made from sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate (KNO3), also known as saltpetre. Saltpetre is a salt made when the acidic protein concentrate from urine and shit is combined with the alkaline wood ash to form the salt KNO3. The sulfur acts like solid concentrated oxygen that is used to burn or break the carbon bonds in the charcoal which can be regarded as a concentrated form of wood. The heat produced is concentrated enough to break the nitrogen bonds in the salt causing a concentrated release of energy called an explosion. 

Like a net that spiders build to trap and capture insects, or like the net society builds to capture and hold information, nature builds net like structures using nitrogen to capture and store light energy to be used by plants and to hold and carry oxygen so that animals can burn the plants for energy. 

Chlorophyll in plants, like a kite, is a ring of 4 nitrogen atoms in a web of carbon with a long trailing chain. 4 nitrogen atoms hold a magnesium atom which on absorbing photons causes electrons to hop from one atom to another down the tail. This flow of electrons is used as an energy source much like a current of electricity from a battery or from lightning hitting a kite. 

Haemoglobin in animals is a similar structure to chlorophyll. The 4 nitrogen atoms hold an iron atom which carries an oxygen atom to cells. The cells use this oxygen to burn the carbohydrates that they ate that the plants produced from light. 

Phosphorous (P) like its slimmer brother nitrogen plays a crucial role in nature and allows energy to be used by life. P is a component of bones, DNA, RNA, ATP and all membranes. Like nitrogen, it is used by man in explosives. 

Arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb) and all of their compounds are extremely toxic because it is similar to phosphorous in cells which is vital for life. 

Group 6 Oxygen Family 

Atoms with 8, 16, 34, 52 and 84 electrons are in the Group VI family. They are O, S, Se, Te, and Po. Elements in this family have a shape with 2 tightly held unpaired electrons which like hands form tight bonds with other molecules. Sulfur is used to bond molecules together to make rubber, just like oxygen is used to bond molecules together to make cellulose. At the same time the 2 unpaired electrons are so tightly held by the nucleus, they often break apart molecules like a karate fighter, especially when atoms are spinning fast. This is seen in the use of sulfur in gunpowder, and the use of oxygen in fires. 

Oxygen (O) is the 5th most abundant element in the universe. It makes up 20% of air and is essential to sustain and fuel life. Oxygen offers 2 unpaired electrons for forming 2 very tight bonds with many types of atoms. They form oxides with most metals (except Gold, Platinum and Mercury) corroding the metals forming rust and tarnish. Metal oxidation takes place when an ionic chemical reaction occurs on a metal's surface while oxygen is present. Electrons move from the metal to the oxygen molecules during this process. Negative oxygen ions then generate and enter the metal, leading to the creation of an oxide surface. Oxides such as Aluminum oxide, copper carbonate and chromium oxide act as protective coatings for the underlying metals. Rust that forms on iron, however, cannot protect the iron from further corrosion because it's too porous.  Oxygen does not fit too well in a group of iron atoms because it is small and too aggressive, tearing the iron atoms away to form powdery rust. Oxygen`s heavier and more sluggish cousin sulfur fits comfortably in with a group of iron atoms and forms a cubic crystal called pyrite. 

Oxygen bonds with hydrogen to make water. Because oxygen is like a fireman that breaks bonds or like a policeman that makes bonds, it has a man’s face. 

2 atoms join to form molecules of O2. 3 atoms form ozone (O3) that like umbrellas shield us from harmful radiation. Oxygen bonds with 2 hydrogen atoms forming water (H2O) vital for life. It bonds with carbon forming carbon dioxide (CO2) to make dry ice, to feed the plants and to bubble our soda. Too much CO2 in the air causes the air to act like glass (SiO2) in a greenhouse that traps the heat causing global warming. 

It bonds with nitrogen forming laughing gas (N2O) to make us light-headed. The centre N alternates from having 2 double bonds to having a single and a triple bond. 

It forms nitric oxide (NO) used by mammals as a cell signalling molecule. It forms nitro-glycerin, a powerful explosive used in dynamite. 

The shape of oxygen with 2 unpaired electrons, like hands, allows oxygen to easily bond on each side. The atom's shape also causes oxidation of molecules by cutting up and tearing them apart when it is freely rotating and swinging its hands. 

When the energetic bonding capability of oxygen is regulated and controlled, complex stable molecule chains form, like carbo-hydrates and acids. 

Carbohydrates 

When hydrocarbon chains are capped with OH, carbohydrates, the building blocks of plants and the fuel of animals like alcohols and sugars are formed. 

Oxygen atoms cut up long chains of carbon built by plants into their smaller constituents. Like the cracking sound emitted when breaking twigs, energy is released when breaking carbon chains. This energy is used by animals when they break down carbon chains from the plants they eat and digest. The end products of this burning is CO2 and H2O which are released into the air like smoke from a fire. The plants use CO2, H2O and sunlight to rebuild the long carbon chains so that the production of energy and materials necessary for animal life can be sustained by the cycle, and the oxygen can be returned to the air. 

CO2 is the by-products of machines when they burn hydrocarbons and a by-product of animals when they burn carbohydrates. One car emits about 2000kg of CO2 a year while a human, about 360kg a year. A human emits per day about 900g of CO2 and to produce 1 hamburger puts 3000g of CO2 in the air. 1 liter of carbonated drink like Coca-Cola has 4.4 g of CO2. Too much CO2 in the air causes a global warming greenhouse effect. 

CO2, like SiO2 is a bit strange in its properties. It has a boiling / condensing point lower than the freezing / melting point. This causes the solid form (dry ice) to boil into gas before melting into liquid. Like glass, it acts as a greenhouse causing global warming. When there is too much CO2 in the air, nature eventually goes into deep freeze with an ice age and puts an end to any more CO2 production for a while by killing off the animals, man and his machines. It's nature’s way of keeping life and machines in check. 

Alcohols are carbohydrates with hydrocarbon tails (R) and with (OH) heads. Chained alcohols form sugars, and chained sugars form starches. When the tail is very long, containing more than 10,000 carbon atoms, cellulose is formed. 

Cellulose, also known as dietary fiber, is the structural component of green plants forming 30% of all plant matter. Wood has 50% cellulose while cotton has 90%. Cellulose is used to make paper sheets, cellophane sheets and rayon strings. 

Methanol, known as rubbing alcohol, is extremely toxic and very deadly. It is made when the cellulose in wood or any bio mass is gassified into wood gas by having their chain of carbons cut up into single carbons and single hydrogens. Oxygen atoms reunite the carbons and hydrogens by forming alcohol heads (OH) which are somewhat polarized. 

Ethanol, known as drinking alcohol, is extremely intoxicating and very addictive. It is made when the sugars in grains and fruit are oxidized and cut apart by hard working bacteria. 

Glycerol, known as sugar alcohol, is extremely sweet and non-toxic. It is made as a byproduct of soap manufacturing where triglyceride fats made from the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids are broken off of their alcohol backbone by lye (NaOH) to form soaps and glycerol. 

When alcohol is further oxidized in a controlled manner, the hydrocarbon chains (R) are capped with (COOH) heads forming organic acids the building blocks of fats. 

Acids and bases 

The strong bonds of oxygen give acids and bases their functionality. When hydrogen is held on a molecule by 2 oxygen atoms, as it is in acids (COOH), the bond to hydrogen is so strong that when hydrogen is knocked away, the 2 oxygen atoms keep and hold hydrogen's electron behind. The protruding proton breaks off breaking hydrogen in two and leaving the molecule as a negatively charged ion. 

When hydrogen is held on a metal molecule by an oxygen, as it is in bases (OH), the bond to the molecule is such that when the oxygen and hydrogen are torn away, the tightly bonding oxygen tears out an loosely held electron from the metal leaving the metal a positively charged ion. 

This allows ionic and electrolytic reactions of acids and bases to take place and is necessary for life. 

Fats and oils 

Molecules do not have to break apart into charged ions in order for them to make bonds. Bonds that are less strong but more long lasting and more resilient than ionic bonds made by ions are the covalent bonds made my molecules that are polarized, with their opposite charges not neutralized, and delegated to go as far away from each other without splitting apart. Oxygen is a very polarized atom and when it forms a head, the head also becomes polarized. With 2 oxygen atoms in an acid head, the head becomes so polarized that it resembles a charged ion. 

Solid fats and liquid oils like triglycerides form all cell walls as well as all membranes within the cells. They insulate against temperature shock and water, and are used as reserve fuel to burn when there are no more carbohydrates to burn. 

Triglycerides are composed of 3 hydrocarbon tails with acid heads called fatty acids connected in the middle by a 4th shorter 3 carbon chain as shown in the figure below. Like a fine feather is essential for birds, triglycerides are essential for cells. 

Acids and alcohols combine to form fragrant and tasty ester compounds (RCOOR’) as shown in the following figure below. The alcohol heads (OH) separate from their tail and offer their tail to the fatty acids. Depending on the length of the acid's tail, and the length of the alcohol's tail, molecules resembling strings of different lengths are formed. Where the acid and alcohol join, an oxygen atom pinches the string with a double bond. Just like different musical notes are produced from a vibrating string depending on its length and where it is pinched, different smells and tastes are produced by these ester molecules. 

Ester strings are formed that can be easily joined together by chemists to form polymers much like plants grow cellulose. These polymers called polyesters can be woven and spun into threads and fabrics much like cellulose in cotton is. Esters can be designed for specific qualities by choosing the right alcohol and acid. Many interesting materials can be formed such as very strong Mylar sheets that make bullet proof vests. 

When fatty acids combine with metal bases like lye, they break apart into negative and positive ions which combine with ionic bonds to form esters called soaps. The metal end of the ester string easily dissolves in water. The hydrocarbon tail from the acid easily dissolves in fat and oil. The tails surround oil droplets and like brooms allow the metal end dissolved in water to drag and flush the oil droplet away. 

When 2 hydrocarbon tails are linked by an oxygen atom (ROR’), color- less flammable liquids used as solvents and anesthetics called ethers are formed. They are pleasant smelling resembling alcohols and occur naturally in starches and sugars. They are widely used in industry and in making pharmaceuticals. 

When 2 hydrocarbon tails are linked by 2 oxygen atoms (ROOR’), peroxides used in the chemistry industry are formed. When each tail consists of only 1 hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide (HOOH) used as a bleach and disinfectant is formed. When hydrogen peroxide comes into contact with blood protein, it breaks apart into water (H2O) and bubbles of oxygen gas (O2). 

When fats and carbohydrates are oxidized, highly reactive and fragrant compounds called aldehydes are formed with double bonds to the oxygen atom. They are used in manufacturing resins, dyes, and organic acids. Formaldehyde from methyl alcohol is a colorless toxic water soluble gas used as a disinfectant and preservative, and in the manufacture of resins and plastics. 

When CO atoms link 2 hydrocarbon tails (R’COR), compounds called ketones like acetone are produced. Acetone is a colourless, volatile, highly flammable liquid that is widely used as a solvent, paint thinner, and nail polish remover. Whenever carbohydrates from foods are low, your body converts fats to ketones for burning. When you burn ketones, far fewer ROS free radicals are formed than when burning sugar, making it a “cleaner” energy source and increasing the production of mitochondria which are the ovens in our cell that burn food for our energy needs. 

When the acids contain nitrogen, nitrogen's properties come out. These acids called amino acids form chains called proteins. The much smaller nucleic acids form twisting chains as seen in DNA. 

Amino acids and nucleic acids are chains similar to esters chained into polyesters by man. Nature chains amino acids into wool and silk. Chemists weave them into poly amides like nylons. 

Oxidation 

Oxidation of materials is a breakdown by burning. Oxygen is one of the strongest oxidizing agents. When metals are oxidized, they cause oxides of metals. When the metal is iron, iron oxide or rust is produced. When hydrocarbons are oxidized, they cause oxides of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxides of hydrogen in the form of water (H2O) to be produced. 

When carbohydrates like cellulose, sugars and alcohols are oxidized in a controlled slow manner, they cause these compounds to slowly break up forming intermediate compounds. Sugars are oxidized into alcohols, and alcohols are oxidized into acids. When fats become rancid by being slowly oxidized, aldehydes and ketones with strong odors are produced. Our body oxidizes fats into sugars. Eventually all organic compounds when fully oxidized break down into CO2 and H2O. 

Sulfur (S), oxygen's heavier brother, is used for making bonds with its 2 unpaired electrons. Just like Oxygen bonds atoms together to form stable molecules, Sulfur bonds molecules together to form stable compounds. Sulfur is used in the vulcanization of rubber by cross-linking the individual polymer chains. Selenium (Se) conducts electricity better in the light than in the dark so it is found in photocells, electrical components that detect light. 

Group 7 Halogens 

Atoms with 9, 17, 35, 53 and 85 electrons are in the Group VII family called halogens. They are more reactive than the alkali metals and even light will cause them to react. Elements in this family have a shape with one very tightly held unpaired electron which forms very strong bonds with other molecules. They are the gases Fluorine and Chlorine (Cl), the liquid Bromine (Br) and the solid Iodine (I). They react with metals forming salts. Because of their attracting powers, they are like attractive flowers. 

Because they have so many valent electrons, their shape allows the lone unpaired electron of the halogen atom to have an empty space the size of an unpaired electron right beside it. When an unpaired electron from another atom (like hydrogen) happens to be bumping into the halogen, the 2 unpaired electrons from each of the two atoms synchronize and pair together like a snap button, making molecules like HCl. 

HCl has the proton of the H atom sticking out and is very vulnerable to be knocked off leaving the Cl atom a negatively charged ion (Cl-). 

Halogen ions, like Cl-, bond with metal ions, like Na+, forming salts, like NaCl. The negative charge of the Cl- ions attracts the positive charge of the metal ions and the Cl- ion penetrates the hole formed by the opened part of the Na+ metal ion forming the table salt NaCl. The electron with the missing proton sticking out of the Cl- ion is like a spear that penetrates the hole left by the missing electron of the Na+ ion. 

Teflon is a chain of carbon atoms covered by a coating of F atoms in- stead of H atoms as is the case in hydrocarbons. Things do not stick to Teflon because the F atoms fit over the otherwise sharp unpaired electrons of the carbon chain like smooth snap buttons over barbs in a barbed wire. The smooth outward facing side of the F atom with its paired electrons so optimally and tightly fit that it leaves no empty space or no slightly sticking out electrons. This results in a very smooth and thus non sticky surface. 

When these Teflon strands are woven into a sheet with micro pores, a textile called Gore-Tex is formed. The fabric is as smooth and impervious to water molecules like a mirror is to light. At the same time, its pores allow individual water vapor molecules in the air, called humidity, to pass through. It is impervious to water because it has a very smooth surface that does not tear and break up water droplets that are held together in a drop by the special bonds called hydrogen bonds. 

Hydrogen with its long shape and protruding proton is polarized, with one end more positively charged than its other end. Atoms that bond with hydrogen become themselves polarized and are able to keep molecules like water together in a drop. Like magnets sticking together. 

Chlorine reacts with water to form disinfectants and bleaches. Chlorine reacts with water producing hydrochloric acid and oxygen which kill most bacteria. The oxygen reacts and destroys portions of molecules that absorb light of specific wavelengths causing colors to be bleached white. Like ironing out the creases of a cloth and making it smooth. 

Fluorine in water and toothpaste kill bacteria that produce cavity form- ing acids in the mouth. All of the halogens and their compounds are very poisonous because of their activity. Because of their activity, they are not found free in nature, but are always combined in compounds. 

When freed by man's industries, they readily combine with O3 in the air destroying them. Ozone (O3) molecules are like protective umbrellas blocking harmful radiations from disturbing delicate forms such as life. 

Group 8 Noble gases 

Atoms with 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 electrons are in the Group VIII called noble gases. They are Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xe and Rn. With no unpaired electrons and a minimum of space between the paired electrons, they are the most stable elements. It is like they have no hand to hold on to and no legs to be held onto and are just too slippery to contain. Because of that it is very hard to cool them to condense into a liquid, as they have the lowest boiling points of all the elements. To freeze them to a solid is even more difficult as they have the lowest melting point of all the elements. This makes the noble gases very useful in anywhere where very low temperatures are required, such as in superconductivity research. Because they do not react with and corrode anything, and they stay pure, they are used in light bulbs like neon lamps and laser tubes to generate beautiful pure color light. 

Helium (He) is the 2nd most abundant element forming almost 25% of the universe. It has 2 protons and 2 electrons that are paired. Helium is the only element that cannot be frozen to a solid state at normal atmospheric pressures. 

Ionic compounds and molecules

Atoms group together in 2 main types of stable formations; molecules and ionic compounds. Unpaired electrons of one atom bond with unpaired electrons of another atom forming a molecule. When the molecule has a charge due to a proton without a moderating electron, or an electron without a moderating proton, then the grouping of atoms is called an ionic compound. 

When an electron is detached from the atom, like Na, the atom forms a positive ion of the element (Na+) and exposes the positive charge of the lone proton left behind. When the free electron pairs with an unpaired electron of an atom like Cl, it becomes mechanically attached like a snap mechanism. With the snout outwards it makes the atom it joined into an ion with a negative charge (Cl-).Ions of opposite charge attract and bond to each other like magnets using their EM fields. These bonds are called ionic bonds and cause compounds called ionic compounds. Ionic compounds like salts form brittle stable solids that when dissolved in water, break apart into charged ions called electrolytes that carry an electric current. They are necessary to sustain life. Ionic compounds are generally large and make up the hard face of our world in its rocks and salts. 

Atoms can also bond mechanically when their shapes allow it. Atoms with unpaired electrons that extend out can be paired with unpaired extending electrons of other atoms. These bonds are called covalent bonds and atoms bound this way are called molecules. Molecular compounds are generally small and make up the soft face of our world in its rivers, air and life. 

Acids, Bases, Salts and Soaps 

Acids and bases are compounds that when dissolved in water break apart to form charged ions. Organic acids have a head made up of COOH. Inorganic acids are just a Halogen type atom with a bonding hydrogen like HCl. Acids easily lose a proton from the tightly held H atom that has its proton extending outward. The freed proton causes the remaining acid molecule with the lone electron left behind to exhibit a charge and become an negative ion. 

Organic acids are formed by oxidizing alcohol in a controlled way, just like alcohol is formed by oxidizing hydrocarbons in a controlled way. Acids are building blocks used in making the fats and proteins that make up animal life. 

Bases are metallic compounds with an OH part that extends out sufficiently to be dislodged when dissolved in water. The OH is tightly bonded with the unpaired electron of the metal so that when it is lodged from the metal, it takes the unpaired electron with it leaving the metal with a lone proton. The positive ion of the base bonds with the negative ion of the acid to form an ionic bipolar compound called a salt. One end of the salt is acquired from the acid and the other end is acquired from the base. The H+ from the acid and the OH- from the base form the neutral and stable molecule water (H2O). 

When organic acids such as those derived from fats react with a metal base, soaps are produced. This can be likened to butter and cheese curdling out of the milk when an acid is added. Soap's functionality can be attributed to its shape. Like a salt, it is bipolar. One end acquired from the fat dissolves readily in fat, while the other end acquired from the metal of the base dissolves readily in water. 

The strength of acids and bases are calibrated on a scale from 0pH to 14pH. Pure water has a pH of 7. When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH of the solution becomes less than 7. When a base is dissolved in water, the pH of the solution becomes greater than 7. 

A strong solution of HCl has a pH of 0. The pH values of various solutions are listed below. Gastric acid (1pH), vinegar and lemon juice (2pH), orange juice (3pH), tomato juice (4pH), black coffee(5pH), urine (6pH), water (7pH), sea water (8pH), baking soda (9pH), milk of magnesia (10pH), ammonia (11pH), soapy water (12pH), bleach (13pH), a strong solution of NaOH (14pH). 

The molecules 

Glues 

Pectin is a carbohydrate that connects plant cells together. When fungus enzymes break down the pectin in fruit, the fruit gets soft and mushy. If there is sufficient sugar in the mixture, pectin forms a firm gel. Pectin binds water, and thus keeps products from drying out. Pectin combines with the calcium and whey proteins of milk, stabilizing foams and gels made with cream or milk. 

Gelatin is protein that connects animal cells together. It is broken down collagen protein from animals' skin and bones. It is used as a thickening (gelling) agent and as glue. 

Both pectin and gelatin have a fiber form with hook like structures that act similar to Velcro, giving them glue like properties. 

Acrylics 

Acrylic fibers are spun by chemists to improve on the properties of cotton, wool and paints. Units of NC3H3 are chained to form polymer fibers that are extremely thin and strong. 

Acrylic fibers are spun by chemists to improve on the properties of cotton, wool and paints. Units of NC3H3 are chained to form polymer fibers that are extremely thin and strong. 

Proteins 

Proteins are chains of amino acids. Amino acids are molecules with two heads. A COOH acid head and a NH2 head on a tail or chain made up of C, H, O and N atoms. All proteins in the human body are made up of only 20 amino acids. 11 of the 20 can be produced by our DNA. 9 must be produced by DNA of other life forms, making us dependent on them. All enzymes, hormones, and tissues in the human body, except fat, are made of protein. 

Molecules of smell and taste 

Smell and taste are produced by molecules forming chains resembling strings of string instruments. Double bonds act like hinges allowing for the flexibility of bending which allows the strings to vibrate. For these molecules to resonate, they have to be heated by frequencies close to their resonant frequency. Their resonant frequency is the smell and taste we perceive. We smell the volatile molecules and we taste the non-volatile ones. Carbohydrates are sweet, acids are sour, salts are salty and bases are bitter. 

Molecules of color 

Color is produced by large molecules forming a ring with resembling drum heads of percussion instruments. For these molecules to resonate, they have to be lit or hit by frequencies close to their resonant frequency. Their resonant frequency is the color that we see. Chemicals called bleaches are known to whiten colors. They are corrosive and disturb the bonds that cause the colors by breaking them. Like an iron flattening out creases in cloth. 

Natural dyes are made from vegetable sources such as roots, flowers, berries, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. 

Onion skins (yellows), walnut hulls (browns), avocado peels and pits (pale pink), marigolds (yellows), sumac leaves (brown), mushrooms and lichens (with their rainbow of possibilities), cochineal (fuchsias and reds), madder root (oranges and reds), coffee grounds and tea (shades of tan and brown), and nettle (yellow and greenish tints) are some examples. 

Man-made synthetic dyes are made from synthetic sources such as petroleum by-products and earth minerals.